Reflective Journal Entry #8

Chapter 13

Description

Chapter 13 focuses on the role of assessment in the classroom.  The chapter delves into the various types of assessment and the purposes of each.  Chapter 13 also includes some principles to help guide in the construction of a good assessment.  

Analysis

According to Slavin (2012) task analysis contributes to the formation of behavioral objectives.  Behavioral objectives lay out what students should know and be able to do at the end of the lesson (Slavin, 2012).  Bloom's Taxonomy can be used to create behavioral objectives with varied levels of understanding (Slavin, 2012). 

Slavin (2012) states that formal assessments provide important information to the teacher, the student, and other stakeholders.  Formal assessments can include formative assessments, summative evaluations, norm-referenced evaluations, and criterion-referenced evaluations (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012, p 380) states, "Tests are constructed to elicit evidence of student learning in relation to the instructional objectives."  Slavin (2012) suggests six principles to keep in mind when constructing assessments.  An assessment should...

• measure clearly defined learning objectives.
• examine a representative sample of the learning tasks included in instruction.
• include the types of test items most appropriate for measuring the desired learning outcomes. 
• fit the uses that will be made of the results. 
• be as reliable as possible and interpreted with caution.
• improve learning. 

Slavin (2012) states that portfolio assessments and performance assessments are also great ways to assess students.  These assessments are a great alternative to pencil-and-paper tests (Slavin, 2012).  

According to Slavin (2012) grading practices can vary based on the level of schooling.  For example, on the elementary level, informal assessments may be more appropriate.  While on the secondary level, letter grades become important.  

Reflection
In my school, we tend to use multiple-choice assessments the most.  However, this is not addressing the higher levels of Bloom's Taxonomy.  Therefore, I will create my own assessments next year in order to address these higher levels of thinking.  This will allow me to see how well students know the content.

Assessment is so important in the classroom.  It can inform instruction and provide valuable feedback to the teacher and student.  I believe it is important to use a variety of assessments in the classroom.  It is important to use formative and summative assessments for various purposes.  We must keep in mind that all tests should elicit evidence of student learning (Slavin, 2012). 

I've not used many portfolio or performance assessments in my classroom in the past.  I've only ever taught first grade and felt that some of these assessments may be too difficult for young students.  However, I've come to realize with proper planning and instruction, students of any age can perform well on a performance assessment.  I will seek to implement more performance assessments in my classroom next year. 

I agree with Slavin (2012) when he states that on the elementary level, informal assessments may be more appropriate.  However, we do still have to assign report card grades.  Therefore, informal assessments don't always provide the evidence necessary to assign and justify a grade.  Therefore, I think formal assessments alongside informal assessments are appropriate in the elementary setting.

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #7

Chapter 11

Description

Chapter 9 primarily focuses on strategies to create effective learning environments.  Much of the chapter is focused on how to handle misbehaviors within the classroom.  Slavin (2012) offers several strategies to combat misbehavior in the classroom setting. 

Analysis

Slavin (2012, p 296) states, "Creating effective learning environments involves strategies that teachers use to maintain appropriate behavior and respond to misbehavior in the classroom."  Two strategies of avoiding misbehavior are promoting student engagement and showing enthusiasm for the content (Slavin, 2012)

Time plays an important role in classroom management.  Time needs to be maximized by preventing late starts and early finishes, preventing interruptions, handling routine procedures smoothly, minimizing time spent on discipline , and using engaged time effectively (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012) states that engaged time can be maximized by teaching engaging lessons, maintaining momentum, managing transitions, and maintaining group focus. 

Slavin (2012) states that it is important to develop rules and procedures at the beginning of the year.  Teachers must also strive to manage routine misbehavior (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012) suggests using the principle of least intervention in which teachers try the simplest methods to redirect misbehavior fist. Slavin (2012) suggests the following strategies from least to most disruptive:

• prevention of misbehavior
• nonverbal cues
• praise of correct behavior
• praise of another student who is behaving
• simple verbal reminders
• repetition of verbal reminders
• application of consequences

Slavin (2012) states that the most common reinforcer for misbehavior is teacher and peer attention.  If a student is misbehaving to get the teacher's attention, the teacher can pay attention to correct behavior instead and ignore the misbehavior (Slavin, 2012).  Individual behavior management strategies may be need for students with persistent behavior problems.  To implement this, teahers must establish baseline behavior through data and select reinforcers that are specific to the child likes and dislikes (Slavin, 2012). 

Reflection
This was such a great chapter for all teachers, no matter their years of experience.  I think educators need to review their management of misbehavior every year and try to improve each year.  Slavin's (2012) suggested approach to handling misbehavior is something I already implement within my classroom.  It is nice to see the steps spelled out in a textbook.  This affirms my practices when it comes to managing misbehavior.

Slavin (2012) also stresses the importance of time management when it comes to misbehavior.  I like to keep my students busy at all times.  I believe students should always have something to do.  In my experiences, most misbehavior occurs when students are "bored" or disengaged.  Therefore, I believe it's important to keep students on task and busy in engaging activities.  This is great for the students' learning and for behavior management. 

My two years of teaching I had very, for lack of a better word, rough classes.  I had several students that exhibited misbehavior very frequently.  I spent so much of my time disciplining that my teaching suffered.  I learned many strategies from this experience.  Slavin (2012) states that student engagement helps with student misbehavior.  I find this to be true.  Had my students been more engaged my first two years of teaching, perhaps I could have decreased the number of disruptive incidents in my classroom.

Finally, I like how Slavin (2012) suggests praise as part of managing misbehavior.  Recently, my school has implemented the PBIS system which is a positive behavioral management program in which teachers focus more on the positive than the negative.  Since implementation of this, our school as a whole has had decrease in the number of office discipline referrals each  year.  I think this is an effective program that should be implemented in all schools.

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #6

Chapter 9

Description

Chapter 9 focuses on various types of groupings, differentiation strategies, and technology within the classroom environment.  The primary focus of chapter nine is how teachers can use grouping, differentiation, and technology to increase student success in the classroom. 

Analysis

Carroll's Model of School Learning focuses on management of time, resources, and activities when it comes to teaching (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012) suggests using the QAIT Model to achieve student learning.  QAIT stands for: quality of instruction, appropriate levels of instruction, incentive, and time (Slavin, 2012).  All elements must be adequate for effective instruction.

Grouping also plays a part in effective instruction.  There are many ways to group students such as ability grouping, tracking, or regrouping.  According to Slavin (2012, p242), "...research shows that within-class groupings are more effective, especially in reading and math, and are clearly preferable to groupings that segregate or stigmatize low achievers."  In some schools, students aren't even grouped by age, but by ability and needs (Slavin, 2012). 

Heterogenous grouping can make it difficult for teachers to meet the needs of each student.  However, with the use of effective differentiation strategies, students' needs can be met in the heterogenous classroom.  Slavin (2012) suggests differentiating content, level, pace, and products of instruction.  Slavin (2012, p 222) states, "Part of the idea of differentiation is that even though all students need to reach the same goals, some will take more time and others less time to do so."

There are many programs to assist with at-risk students.  Among these programs are compensatory education, early intervention programs, and special education (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012) states that research supports such intervention programs that can lead to student success. 

Technology in the classroom can be used for teaching and learning (Slavin, 2012).  Many classrooms across the country are equipped with computers, tablets, and/or interactive white boards (Slavin, 2012).  These technologies can be used to enhance lessons for whole group instruction or even small group instruction.  Students also need to learn how to use technology to be successful in our technologically driven world.  Slavin (2012) states that students need experience in word processing, publishing, spreadsheets, and databases.  Students also need to be well versed in how to use the internet and distinguish valid sources of information (Slavin, 2012).   

Reflection
Slavin (2012) recommends the QAIT Model to help achieve student learning.  This breaks down the components of effective teaching in a simple way.  Educators must focus on the quality of instruciton, the appropriateness of instruction (differentiation), incentive (student motivation), and time available.  I think if we keep these aspects of teaching in mind while planning lessons, we will have greater student success.  I would like to try this in my classroom next year. 

This chapter also focused on grouping.  I think grouping plays a huge role in the success of our students.  Currently, our school is grouped homogeneously by ability.  According to Slavin (2012) this leads to labeling of low achieving students and low expectations.  There are many issues with this type of grouping.  I would like to suggest to my administrators to try heterogenous grouping.  With proper training in differentiation strategies, I feel that my school could be successful with this type of grouping. 

Chapter nine stressed the importance of programs for at-risk students.  Our school implements many of the programs for at-risk students that was mentioned in the chapter.  We use a tier intervention program, and up until last year we implemented Reading Recovery.  This was a great program to help at-risk students receive the extra support they needed to begin reading on grade level.  I would like for my school to implement this program, or something similar, again to address the needs of at-risk students.

Slavin (2012) stresses the importance of technology implementation and education in the classroom.  It is important for students to learn how to use the technology around them to further their education.  Luckily, my school provides students with many opportunities to use technology.  We have Promethean Boards, document cameras, student desktop computers, and student laptops.  This exposes students to technology and allows them to gain experience using technology.  This is very beneficial considering that our students take the GMAS and other standardized tests on a computer. 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #5

Chapter 8

Description

Chapter 8 primarily focuses on student-centered and constructivist approaches.  The chapter focuses on cooperative learning and the teaching of problem-solving and thinking skills as well.  The chapter presents strategies and ideas relevant to student-centered learning.  

Analysis

Slavin (2012, p 188) states, "Students must construct knowledge in their own minds."  Constructivist theories of learning are based on this idea (Slavin, 2012).  These theories focus on top-down processing in which students are given a problem, or task, and must develop the skills and knowledge necessary to solve the problem or complete the task (Slavin, 2012).  Slavin (2012, p 209) states,

"Constructivist approaches also emphasis cooperative learning, questioning and inquiry strategies, and other metacognitive skills."

Discovery learning, in which students lead their own learning and teachers act as facilitators is a strategy used by constructivists (Slavin, 2012).  The idea of scaffolding learning is also an important aspect of the constructivist theory (Slavin, 2012). 

According to Slavin (2012), cooperative learning is also a student-centered approach.  Slavin (2012, p 198) states, "In cooperative learning instructional methods, or peer-assisted learning, students work together in small groups to help each other learn."  Certain cooperative learning programs are successful because they reward group as well as individual effort (Slavin, 2012).  Cooperative learning the whole group responsible for each individual's learning (Slavin, 2012). 

Finally, Slavin (2012) discusses the teaching of thinking and problem-solving skills.  Teachers can use a five-step strategy, IDEAL, to teach problem solving skill (Slavin, 2012).  These letters stand for:
Identify problems and opportunities
Define goals and represent the problem
Explore possible strategies
Anticipate outcomes and act
Look back and learn.

A four-step process for teaching thinking skills is suggested by Slavin (2012).  These steps include state, search, evaluate, and elaborate.  Slavin (2012) also suggests creating a culture of thinking within the classroom.  

Reflection
Student-centered learning has always, for lack of a better word, scared me.  It is hard for teachers to give up control of their classrooms and student learning.  However, reading this chapter has allowed me to see the benefits in a student-centered approach.  For example, Slavin (2010) states that allowing interactions among peers can help students discover new concepts and learn new ideas that the teacher may have not been able to show students. 

I also enjoyed reading about discovery learning.  This is where students guide their own learning while the teacher facilitates.  As much as I like the idea of this strategy, I think it would be hard to implement in a classroom where standards and standardized testing are priority.  It would be worth a shot to implement some discovery learning within the contexts of the standards. 

One method I would like to try within my own classroom is to use the IDEAL strategy when teaching problem-solving skills.  I want my students to become independent, so we are constantly talking about problem-solving.  The IDEAL strategy gives structure to teaching problem-solving strategies.  I would like to use these steps in my classroom next year. 

Finally, another strategy I would like to begin implementing within my classroom next year is the four step strategy Slavin (2012) suggested for teaching thinking skills.  Slavin (2012) suggests that students state the problem/situation/goals, search for ideas, evaluate those ideas/theories/opinions, and elaborate on plans/possibilities/options.  This would be a great way to have students think creatively to solve problems. 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #4

Chapter 7

Description

Chapter 7 focuses primarily on direct instruction.  The chapter emphasizes the steps an educator must take in order to provide direct instruction.  The chapter also focuses on how students learn new concepts, and the importance of transferring that learning to a real-world setting. 

Analysis

Slavin (2012, p 182) states that "Direct instruction is a teaching approach that emphasizes teacher control of most classroom events and the presentation of structured lessons."  When using this approach the teacher must first state the learning objectives and let the students know what they are about to learn in that lesson (Slavin, 2012).  The teacher should also review any prerequisite materials at the beginning of the lesson (Slavin, 2012).  Next, the teacher can present the new information in an organized manner that promotes engagement (Slavin, 2012).  The teacher must then conduct question the students to give the teacher feedback and allow students to communicate their thoughts (Slavin, 2012).  Next, students will work on independent practice which should be designed to help them practice their newly learned skill (Slavin, 2012).  The teacher will assess the student at the end of the lesson.  Finally, the teacher provides distributed practice, homework, or review (Slavin, 2012). 

Slavin (2012) states that much of principles discussed above are based on process-product studies.  This is where teachers who have success in the classroom are observed.  The information from these observations help form these principles. 

Slavin (2012) goes on to state that most lesson involve learning a new concept.  A concept can be learned in two ways.  These are learning by observation or learning by definition.  Slavin (2012) also stresses the importance of students to be able to transfer learning to real-life activities.  Slavin (2012) states that transfer of learning depends on how the information was learned originally and how closely it relates to the new situation.  

Reflection
As educators, we plan lessons all the time.  We know the basic steps to a lesson.  We've known these steps since undergrad.  However, this chapter really delved into each step and why it is important in direct instruction.  This chapter also provided the origin of these steps.  Now I feel like I am not just blindly following steps, but I know they are rooted in research. 

One part that was missing from the steps that I feel is very important in first grade is guided practice.  I think it is important for young students to practice with a peer, in a group, or even with the teacher before they try the skill on their own.  This will increase confidence and motivation when the student has to try the skill on his/her own.

I liked how the author stressed the importance of transferring information into a real-world setting.  Sometimes we get so caught up in the standards and preparing students for a test or even the next grade, we forget the actual purpose of learning.  We want our students to be able to function in the world around them with well-rounded knowledge.  We must maintain this goal as we are teaching so we don't get in the rut of teaching to the test. 

I also liked how Slavin (2012) pointed out that how well transfer of learning happens depends on how the informations is learned and how closely it relates to the real-world.  This makes me think of depth of knowledge and creating relevant lesson plans.  If students have a deeper depth of knowledge about a topic, they will be more likely to transfer that learning into the real world.  Also, if the learning is relevant to the students' lives, transfer of learning will occur. 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #3

Chapter 6

Description

Chapter 6 focuses on the Information-Processing Model.  This chapter delves into how the brain stores information, and strategies that teachers can use to assist students to store this information into their long term memory.  

Analysis

According to Slavin (2012, p 154) there are three components of memory.  These are the sensory register, short term memory, and long term memory (Slavin, 2012).  The sensory register is part of a person's senses and helps form a person's perceptions (Slavin, 2012).  Short term memory, or working memory, can hold five to nine pieces of information at a time (Slavin, 2012).  Long term memory is where memories are held for an indefinite amount of time (Slavin, 2012).  The three parts of long term memory are episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory (Slavin, 2012).  Cognitive theorists suggest that educators must relate information to this part of the memory in order for student to learn the information (Slavin, 2012).

Research on the brain has shown that various parts of the brain are responsible for processing various types of information (Slavin, 2012).  The Interference Theory explains why people forget information (Slavin, 2012).  This is one new information interferes with previously learned information (Slavin, 2012).  Therefore, teachers must strive for automaticity.  This is when a skill is practiced so frequently that it moves into long term memory (Slavin, 2012).

In order to help students learn information, teachers must make the information more meaningful to them according to the Schema Theory (Slavin, 2012).  Also, teacher must teach metacognitive strategies (Slavin, 2012).  These are strategies in which students begin thinking about their own thinking.

Slavin (2012) suggests many strategies to help students learn new information.  These include note-taking, summarizing, writing to learn, outlining, using advanced organizers, use of analogies, and questioning techniques.  Slavin (2012) suggests that one of the best study techniques is the PQ4R Method.  PQ4R stands for "preview", "question", "read", "reflect", "recite", and "review"(Slavin, 2012).  

Reflection
I thought this reading was very interesting, not only as a teacher, but as a student as well.  I think it is interesting how we organize and store information in our brains according to importance.  I also enjoyed reading about the various strategies that I can use as a student to help me move information into my long term memory. 

I think this information is also important in the context of my classroom.  We are always striving to help students learn and remember new information.  If we use some of the suggested strategies, we can help students internalize information and move it to their long term memory.  I particularly would like to try the PQ4R method within my classroom next year. 

I will use what I've learned from this chapter by thinking about my students' memories while I am teaching.  I will seek to connect new concepts to my students' prior knowledge.  I will also seek to make information relevant and important in my students' lives.  This will help students remember the new information.

I've also gained a deeper understanding of automaticity by reading this chapter.  My literacy coach is always saying we need to move our students to automaticity when it comes to reading.  I've always taken this as they become so good at reading, they don't have to think about it anymore.  I never thought about it in the context of memory and what type of memory is being used. 

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Reflective Journal Entry #2

Chapter 5

Description

Chapter 5 focuses on the behavioral and social theories in education.   Ivan Pavlov's theory of Classical Conditioning and B.F. Skinner's theory of Operant Conditioning are the primary behavioral theories discussed.  Albert Bandura's work and the work of Donald Meichenbaum are used to discuss social theories in education.  

Analysis

Ivan Pavlov's work involved classical conditioning (Slavin, 2012).  In Pavlov's research, he discovered that if he rang a bell every time a dog ate, the dog would begin to associate the sound of the bell with food and begin to salivate upon hearing the bell (Slavin, 2012).  Therefore, Pavlov discovered that conditioning could affect what were once believed to be involuntary reflexes (Slavin, 2012).  

B.F. Skinner proposed another type of conditioning known as operant conditioning (Slavin, 2012).  Operant conditioning focuses on the relationship between a behavior and its consequence (Slavin, 2012).  For example, if a student is rewarded for raising his/her hand to speak, he/she will continue that behavior.  B.F. Skinner is credited with the idea of immediate consequences (positive or negative) for various behaviors (Slavin, 2012).  Various reinforcers and punishers can be used to obtain desired behaviors from students.  

Albert Bandura argued that Skinner's approach completely ignored the concept of modeling (Slavin, 2012).  

"He felt that much of human learning is not shaped by its consequences but is more efficiently learned directly from a model (Slavin, 2012, p 112)."

Bandura's theory of observational learning contains four stages: attentional, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Slavin, 2012).  The attentional phase involves the student paying attention to the model, the retention phase gives the student a chance to practice what is being modeled, the reproduction phase involves the student trying to match the model, and the motivation phase involves students wanting to imitate the model (Slavin, 2012).  Another aspect of Bandura's theory is self-regulation.

"Bandura hypothesized that people observe their own behavior, judge it against their own standards, and reinforce or punish themselves (Slavin, 2012, p 114)."

Donald Meichenbaum's theory of cognitive behavior modification suggests that students can be taught to monitor their own behavior (Slavin, 2012).  Meichenbaum's method involved getting students to think about their own thinking.

Reflection
When I began reading this chapter, I thought that Pavlov's approach was very animalistic.  I had a hard time relating this theory to the classroom because it seemed a bit demeaning to the subjects.  I don't necessarily want to "train" my students.  I want to teach them through the use of consequences and modeling. 

I related more to the ideas of Skinner.  In my school, we use the PBIS system.  This system focuses on positive consequences for positive behaviors.  That's not to say that there are no negative consequences for negative behaviors, but there is are consequences for student behavior.  Since the implementation of PBIS, our amount of office discipline referrals have decreased dramatically.

I also enjoyed reading about Bandura's approach.  Bandura suggests that students will behave according to what is modeled for them.  We see this a lot in the classroom.  We see that students behave a certain way because that's the way their parents behave.  Therefore, I try to model for my students the behavior I expect of them.  I try to stay calm in stressful situations, I try not to raise my voice, I show them respect, etc...  I always try to remember to practice what I preach, especially in front of my students.

Meichenbaum's theory was also interesting to me.  I think it is important for young students to learn how to self-monitor.  We need to help foster their self-monitoring skills.  I think these skills are very developmental, and we need to begin teaching students how to self-monitor at an early age.  

Reference

Slavin, R. E. (2012). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.